🖥️r2
➡️This is a command-line reference manual for commands and command combinations that you don’t use often enough to remember it. This cheatsheet explains the r2 command with important options and switches using examples.
16 minute read
▁ ▂ ▃ ▄ ꧁ 🔴☠ COMMANDLINE-KUNGFU WITH CHEATSHEETS ☠🔴꧂▅ ▃ ▂ ▁
# ██████╗ ██████╗
# ██╔══██╗╚════██╗
# ██████╔╝ █████╔╝
# ██╔══██╗██╔═══╝
# ██║ ██║███████╗
# ╚═╝ ╚═╝╚══════╝
# Command Line options
-L: List of supported IO plugins
-q: Exit after processing commands
-w: Write mode enabled
-i: Interprets a r2 script
-A: Analize executable at load time (xrefs, etc)
-n: Bare load. Do not load executable info as the entrypoint
-c'cmds': Run r2 and execute commands (eg: r2 -wqc'wx 3c @ main')
-p: Creates a project for the file being analyzed (CC add a comment when opening a file as a project)
-: Opens r2 with the malloc plugin that gives a 512 bytes memory area to play with (size can be changed); Similar to r2 malloc://512
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
# Configuration properties
e: Returs configuration properties
e <property>: Checks a specific property:
e asm.tabs => false
e <property>=<value>: Change property value
e asm.arch=ppc
e? help about a configuration property
e? cmd.stack
# Show comments at right of disassembly if they fit in screen
e asm.cmtright=true
# Shows pseudocode in disassembly. Eg mov eax, str.ok = > eax = str.ok
e asm.pseudo = true
# Display stack and register values on top of disasembly view (visual mode)
e cmd.stack = true
# Solarized theme
eco solarized
# Use UTF-8 to show cool arrows that do not look like crap :)
e scr.utf8 = true
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
# Basic Commands
; Command chaining: x 3;s+3;pi 3;s+3;pxo 4;
| Pipe with shell commands: pd | less
! Run shell commands: !cat /etc/passwd
!! Escapes to shell, run command and pass output to radare buffer
Note: The double exclamation mark tells radare to skip the plugin list to find an IO plugin handling this
command to launch it directly to the shell. A single one will walk through the io plugin list.
` Radare commands: wx `!ragg2 -i exec`
~ grep
~! grep -v
~[n] grep by columns afl~[0]
~:n grep by rows afl~:0
<command>~.. less/more mode
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
pi~mov,eax ; lines with mov or eax
pi~mov&eax ; lines with mov and eax
pi~mov,eax:6 ; 6 first lines with mov or eax
pd 20~call[0]:0 ; grep first column of the first row matching 'call'
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
.cmd Interprets command output
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
is* prints symbolos
.is* interprets output and define the symbols in radare (normally they are already loaded if r2 was not invoked with -n)
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
.. repeats last commands (same as enter \n)
( Used to define and run macros
$ Used to define alias
$$: Resolves to current address
Offsets (@) are absolute, we can use $$ for relative ones @ $$+4
? Evaluate expression
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
[0x00000000]> ? 33 +2
35 0x23 043 0000:0023 35 00100011 35.0 0.000000
Note: | and & need to be escaped
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
?$? Help for variables used in expressions
$$: Here
$s: File size
$b: Block size
$l: Opcode length
$j: When $$ is at a jmp, $j is the address where we are going to jump to
$f: Same for jmp fail address
$m: Opcode memory reference (e.g. mov eax,[0x10] => 0x10)
??? Help for ? command
?i Takes input from stdin. Eg ?i username
?? Result from previous operations
?s from to [step]: Generates sequence from to every
?p: Get physical address for given virtual address
?P: Get virtual address for given physical one
?v Show hex value of math expr
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
?v 0x1625d4ca ^ 0x72ca4247 = 0x64ef968d
?v 0x4141414a - 0x41414140 = 0xa
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
?l str: Returns the length of string
@@: Used for iteractions
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
wx ff @@10 20 30 Writes ff at offsets 10, 20 and 30
wx ff @@`?s 1 10 2` Writes ff at offsets 1, 2 and 3
wx 90 @@ sym.* Writes a nop on every symbol
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
# Positioning
s address: Move cursor to address or symbol
s-5 (5 bytes backwards)
s- undo seek
s+ redo seek
# Block Size
b size: Change block size
# Analyze
aa: Analyze all (fcns + bbs) same that running r2 with -A
ahl <length> <range>: fake opcode length for a range of bytes
ad: Analyze data
ad@rsp (analize the stack)
+ Normal mode
af: Analyze functions
afl: List all functions
number of functions: afl~?
afi: Returns information about the functions we are currently at
afr: Rename function: structure and flag
afr off: Restore function name set by r2
afn: Rename function
afn strlen 0x080483f0
af-: Removes metadata generated by the function analysis
af+: Define a function manually given the start address and length
af+ 0xd6f 403 checker_loop
axt: Returns cross references to (xref to)
axf: Returns cross references from (xref from)
+ Visual mode
d, f: Function analysis
d, u: Remove metadata generated by function analysis
+ Opcode analysis
ao x: Analize x opcodes from current offset
a8 bytes: Analize the instruction represented by specified bytes
# Information
iI: File info
iz: Strings in data section
izz: Strings in the whole binary
iS: Sections
iS~w returns writable sections
is: Symbols
is~FUNC exports
il: Linked libraries
ii: Imports
ie: Entrypoint
+ Mitigations
i~pic : check if the binary has position-independent-code
i~nx : check if the binary has non-executable stack
i~canary : check if the binary has canaries
# Print
psz n @ offset: Print n zero terminated String
px n @ offset: Print hexdump (or just x) of n bytes
pxw n @ offset: Print hexdump of n words
pxw size@offset prints hexadecimal words at address
pd n @ offset: Print n opcodes disassambled
pD n @ offset: Print n bytes disassembled
pi n @ offset: Print n instructions disassambeled (no address, XREFs, etc. just instrunctions)
pdf @ offset: Print disassembled function
pdf~XREF (grep: XREFs)
pdf~call (grep: calls)
pcp n @ offset: Print n bytes in python string output.
pcp 0x20@0x8048550
import struct
buf = struct.pack ("32B",
0x55,0x89,0xe5,0x83,0xzz,0xzz,0xzz,0xzz,0xf0,0x00,0x00,
0x00,0x00,0xc7,0x45,0xf4,0x00,0x00,0x00,0x00,0xeb,0x20,
0xc7,0x44,0x24,0x04,0x01,0x00,0x00,0x00,0xzz,0xzz)
p8 n @ offset: Print n bytes (8bits) (no hexdump)
pv: Print file contents as IDA bar and shows metadata for each byte (flags , ...)
pt: Interpret data as dates
pf: Print with format
pf.: list all formats
p=: Print entropy ascii graph
# Write
wx: Write hex values in current offset
wx 123456
wx ff @ 4
wa: Write assembly
wa jnz 0x400d24
wc: Write cache commit
wv: Writes value doing endian conversion and padding to byte
wo[x]: Write result of operation
wow 11223344 @102!10
write looped value from 102 to 102+10
0x00000066 1122 3344 1122 3344 1122 0000 0000 0000
wox 0x90
XOR the current block with 0x90. Equivalent to wox 0x90 $$!$b (write from current position, a whole block)
wox 67 @4!10
XOR from offset 4 to 10 with value 67
wf file: Writes the content of the file at the current address or specified offset (ASCII characters only)
wF file: Writes the content of the file at the current address or specified offset
wt file [sz]: Write to file (from current seek, blocksize or sz bytes)
Eg: Dump ELF files with wt @@ hit0* (after searching for ELF headers: \x7fELF)
woO 41424344 : get the index in the De Bruijn Pattern of the given word
# Flags
f: List flags
f label @ offset: Define a flag `label` at offset
f str.pass_len @ 0x804999c
f -label: Removes flag
fr: Rename flag
fd: Returns position from nearest flag (looking backwards). Eg => entry+21
fs: Show all flag spaces
fs flagspace: Change to the specified flag space
fe loop and create numbered flags:
1. fs demo_flagspace
2. fe demo_flagspace @@=`pdf~jne[1]`
# Yank & Paste
y n: Copies n bytes from current position
y: Shows yank buffer contentent with address and length where each entry was copied from
yp: Prints yank buffer
yy offset: Paste the contents of the yank buffer at the specified offset
yt n target @ source: Yank to. Copy n bytes fromsource to target address
# Visual Mode
q: Exits visual mode
hjkl: move around (or HJKL) (left-down-up-right)
o: go/seek to given offset
?: Help
.: Seek EIP
<enter>: Follow address of the current jump/call
:cmd: Enter radare commands. Eg: x @ esi
d[f?]: Define cursor as a string, data, code, a function, or simply to undefine it.
dr: Rename a function
df: Define a function
v: Get into the visual code analysis menu to edit/look closely at the current function.
p/P: Rotate print (visualization) modes
hex, the hexadecimal view
disasm, the disassembly listing
Use numbers in [] to follow jump
Use "u" to go back
debug, the debugger
words, the word-hexidecimal view
buf, the C-formatted buffer
annotated, the annotated hexdump.
c: Changes to cursor mode or exits the cursor mode
select: Shift+[hjkl]
i: Insert mode
a: assembly inline
A: Assembly in visual mode
y: Copy
Y: Paste
f: Creates a flag where cursor points to
<tab> in the hexdump view to toggle between hex and strings columns
V: View ascii-art basic block graph of current function
W: WebUI
x, X: XREFs to current function. ("u" to go back)
t: track flags (browse symbols, functions..)
gG: Begging or end of file
HUD
_ Show HUD
backspace: Exits HUD
We can add new commands to HUD in: radare2/shlr/hud/main
;[-]cmt: Add/remove comment
m<char>: Define a bookmark
'<char>: Go to previously defined bookmark
# ROP
/R opcodes: Search opcodes
/R pop,pop,ret
/Rl opcodes: Search opcodes and print them in linear way
/Rl jmp eax,call ebx
/a: Search assembly
/a jmp eax
pda: Returns a library of gadgets that can be use. These gadgets are obtained by disassmbling byte per byte instead of obeying to opcode leng
e search.roplen = 4 (change the depth of the search, to speed-up the hunt)
# Searching
/ bytes: Search bytes
\x7fELF
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
push ebp
mov ebp, esp
Opcodes: 5589e5
/x 5589e5
[# ]hits: 54c0f4 < 0x0804c600 hits = 1
0x08049f70 hit0_0 5589e557565383e4f081ec
0x0804c31a hit0_1 5589e583ec18c704246031
0x0804c353 hit0_2 5589e583ec1889442404c7
0x0804c379 hit0_3 5589e583ec08e87cffffff
0x0804c3a2 hit0_4 5589e583ec18c70424302d
pi 5 @@hit* (Print 5 first instructions of every hit)
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
Its possible to run a command for each hit. Use the cmd.hit property:
e cmd.hit=px
# Comments and defines
Cd [size]: Define as data
C- [size]: Define as code
Cs [size]: Define as String
Cf [size]: Define as struct
We can define structures to be shown in the disassmbly
CC: List all comments or add a new comment in console mode
C* Show all comments/metadata
CC <comment> add new comment
CC- remove comment
# Magic files
pm: Print Magic files analysis
[0x00000000]> pm
0x00000000 1 ELF 32-bit LSB executable, Intel 80386, version 1
/m [magicfile]: Search magic number headers with libmagic
search.align
search.from (0 = beginning)
search.to (0 = end)
search.asmstr
search.in
# Yara
:yara scan
# Zignatures
zg <language> <output file>: Generate signatures
eg: zg go go.z
Run the generated script to load signatures
eg: . go.z
z: To show signatures loaded:
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
r2-(pid2)> pd 35 @ 0x08049adb-10
| 0x08049adb call fcn.0805b030
| fcn.0805b030(unk, unk, unk, unk) ; sign.sign.b.sym.fmt.Println
| 0x08049ae0 add esp, 0xc
| 0x08049ae3 call fcn.08095580
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
# Compare Files
r2 -m 0xf0000 /etc/fstab ; Open source file
o /etc/issue ; Open file2 at offset 0
o ; List both files
cc offset: Diff by columns between current offset address and "offset"
# Graphs
+ Basic block graphs
af: Load function metadata
ag $$ > a.dot: Dump basic block graph to file
ag $$ | xdot: Show current function basic block graph
+ Call graphs
af: Load function metadata
agc $$ > b.dot: Dump basic block graph to file
+ Convert .dot in .png
dot -Tpng -o /tmp/b.png b.dot
+ Generate graph for file
radiff2 -g main crackme.bin crackme.bin > /tmp/a
xdot /tmp/a
# Debugger
+ Start r2 in debugger mode. r2 will fork and attach
r2 -d [pid|cmd|ptrace] (if command contains spaces use quotes: r2 -d "ls /")
ptrace://pid (debug backend does not notice, only access to mapped memory)
+ Pass arguments
r2 -d rarun2 program=pwn1 arg1=$(python exploit.py)
+ Pass stdin
r2 -d rarun2 program=/bin/ls stdin=$(python exploit.py)
+ Commands
do: Reopen program
dp: Shows debugged process, child processes and threads
dc: Continue
dcu <address or symbol>: Continue until symbol (sets bp in address, continua until bp and remove bp)
dc[sfcp]: Continue until syscall(eg: write), fork, call, program address (To exit a library)
ds: Step in
dso: Step out
dss: Skip instruction
dr register=value: Change register value
dr(=)?: Show register values
db address: Sets a breakpoint at address
db sym.main add breakpoint into sym.main
db 0x804800 add breakpoint
db -0x804800 remove breakpoint
dsi (conditional step): Eg: "dsi eax==3,ecx>0"
dbt: Shows backtrace
drr: Display in colors and words all the refs from registers or memory
dm: Shows memory map (* indicates current section)
[0xb776c110]> dm
sys 0x08048000 - 0x08062000 s r-x /usr/bin/ls
sys 0x08062000 - 0x08064000 s rw- /usr/bin/ls
sys 0xb776a000 - 0xb776b000 s r-x [vdso]
sys 0xb776b000 * 0xb778b000 s r-x /usr/lib/ld-2.17.so
sys 0xb778b000 - 0xb778d000 s rw- /usr/lib/ld-2.17.so
sys 0xbfe5d000 - 0xbfe7e000 s rw- [stack]
+ To follow child processes in forks (set-follow-fork-mode in gdb)
dcf until a fork happen then use dp to select what process you want to debug.
+ PEDA like details
drr;pd 10@-10;pxr 40@esp
+ Debug in visual mode
toggl breakpoints with F2
single-step with F7 (s)
step-over with F8 (S)
continue with F9
# WebGUI
=h: Start the server
=H: Start server and browser
# rax2 - Base Conversion
-e: Change endian
-k: random ASCII art to represent a number/hash. Similar to how SSH represents keys
-s: ASCII to hex
rax2 -S hola (from string to hex)
rax2 -s 686f6c61 (from hex to string)
-S: binary to hex (for files)
-N: pack an integer
rax2 -N 0x1234 # \x34\x12\x00\x00
# rahash2 - Entropy, hashes and checksums
-a: Specify the algorithm
-b XXX: Block size
-B: Print all blocks
-a entropy: Show file entropy or entropy per block (-B -b 512 -a entropy)
+ Rot13 with rahash2
rahash2 -E rot -S s:13 -s ‘Hello\n’
# radiff2 - File diffing
-s: Calculate text distance from two files.
-d: Delta diffing (For files with different sizes. Its not byte per byte)
-C: Code diffing (instead of data)
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
Diff original and patched on x86_32, using graphdiff algorithm
radiff2 -a x86 -b32 -C original patched
Show differences between original and patched on x86_32
radiff2 -a x86 -b32 original patched :
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
# rasm2 - Assembly/Disasembly
-L: Supported architectures
-a arch instruction: Sets architecture
rasm2 -a x86 'mov eax,30' => b81e000000
-b tam: Sets block size
-d: Disassembly
rasm2 -d b81e000000 => mov eax, 0x1e
-C: Assembly in C output
rasm2 -C 'mov eax,30' => "\xb8\x1e\x00\x00\x00"
-D: Disassemble showing hexpair and opcode
rasm2 -D b81e0000 => 0x00000000 5 b81e000000 mov eax, 0x1e
-f: Read data from file instead of ARG.
-t: Write data to file
+ Disassemble shellcode from hex stdin
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
echo -n "31c048bbd19d9691d08c97ff48f7db53545f995257545eb03b0f05" | rasm2 -a x86 -b 64 -d -
xor eax, eax
movabs rbx, 0xff978cd091969dd1
neg rbx
push rbx
push rsp
pop rdi
cdq
push rdx
push rdi
push rsp
pop rsi
mov al, 0x3b
syscall
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
# rafind2 - Search
-Z: Look for Zero terminated strings
-s str: Look for specifc string
-X: Hex dump around output
+ Search "/bin/sh" in libc
rafind2 -X -s "/bin/sh" /usr/lib/libc.so.6
# ragg2 - Shellcode generator, C/opcode compiler
P: Generate De Bruijn patterns
ragg2 -P 300 -r
-a arch: Configure architecture
-b bits: Specify architecture bits (32/64)
-i shellcode: Specify shellcode to generate
-e encoder: Specify encoder
+ ragg2-cc: Generate shellcode from c
+ Generate a x86, 32 bits exec shellcode
ragg2 -a x86 -b 32 -i exec
# rabin2 - Executable analysis: symbols, imports, strings
-I: Executable information
-C: Returns classes. Useful to list Java Classes
-l: Dynamic linked libraries
-s: Symbols
-z: Strings
# rarun2 - Launcher to run programs with different environments, args, stdin, permissions, fds
r2 -b 32 -d rarun2 program=pwn1 arg1=$(ragg2 -P 300 -r) : runs pwn1 with a De Bruijn Pattern as first argument, inside radare2's debugger, and force 32 bits
r2 -d rarun2 program=/bin/ls stdin=$(python exploit.py) : runs /bin/ls with the output of exploit.py directed to stdin
# ESIL emulation
1) aei: Initialize ESIL VM
2) aeim: Assign ESIL stack
aeim 0xffffd000 0x1000 stack
3) aeip: Program counter to current seek
4) e io.cache=true: Enable caching read/write of virtual memory (Important if self modifying code)
5) aes: Single stepping in emulation mode
+ Toggle IL representation via O in Visual Mode
# ESIL Linear emulation
Find all references to curr. address using linear esil emulation on all imports.
/re$$@@ sym.imp.*
# ESIL IL Representation
op esil
------------
mov =
mul *
div /
and &
neg !
read []
if ?{
add +
sub -
xor ^
or |
cmp ==
write =[]
+ prefix is %
+ carry from bit x -> %cx
+ borrow from bit x -> %bx
+ zero-flag -> %z
+ parity of dst -> %p
+ sign-flag -> %s
+ overflow-flag -> %o
+ BREAK - Stop parsing and emulate next instruction
+ LOOP - restart emulation of instruction
+ GOTO n - jump to n
+ TODO - stop emulation and eprintf("TDOD %s", ins)
x86 ESIL
------------------------------------------------------
mov eax, ebx ebx,eax,=
jz 0xaabbccdd zf,?{,0xaabbccdd,eip,=,}
cmp ecx,edx edx,ecx,==,%z,zf,=,%b32,cf,=,%p,pf,=,%s,sf,=
push ebp 4,esp,-=ebp,esp,=[4]
+ ESIL Doc
https://github.com/radare/radare2book/blob/master/esil.md
# r2pipe commands
+ Invoke r2pipe script via r2 cmdline
[0x00000000]> #!pipe node script.js
[0x00000000]> #!pipe python script.py
+ Good collection:
https://radare.org/get/r2pipe-nn2015.pdf
https://github.com/jpenalbae/r2-scripts
# Parsing ELF
!!! open with r2 -nn
+ Parse 9 program headers (elf_phdr) from curr. seek plus offset 0x40 with temporary block size 0x200 in less mode (~..)
[0x00000000]> pf 9? (elf_phdr)phdr @ $$+0x40!0x200~..
# pf Templates
+ Generate templates for structs/enums with td command
"td enum elf_class {ELFCLASSNONE=0, ELFCLASS32=1, ELFCLASS64=2};"
https://github.com/Maijin/r2-pf-templates/
+ Cast data @ <addr> to <type> and print it
tp <type> = <address>
# r2scapy
r2 -i r2scapy.py dump.bin
[0x00000000]> scapy DNS 0x81de3c 48
DNS(aa=1L, qr=1L, an=DNSRR(rclass=32769, ttl=120, rrname='flashair.local.', rdata='192.168.0.1', type=1), ad=0L, nscount=0, qdcount=1, ns=None, tc=0L, rd=1L, arcount=0, ar=None, opcode=0L, ra=0L, cd=0L, z=0L, rcode=0L, id=0, ancount=1, qd=DNSQR(qclass=32769, qtype=255, qname='flashair.local.'))
+ generate packets with scapy
>>> from scapy.all import *
>>> sr1(IP(dst="8.8.8.8")/UDP(dport=53)/DNS(rd=1,qd=DNSQR(qname="www.thepacketgeek.com")),verbose=0)
# r2m2 -Miasm Intermediate Representation Plugin
+ Assemble and disassemble MIPS32 using rasm2
r2m2$ export R2M2_ARCH=mips32l; rasm2 -a r2m2 'addiu a0, a1, 2' |rasm2 -a r2m2 -d -
ADDIU A0, A1, 0x2
+ Disassemble random MSP430 instructions in r2
r2m2$ R2M2_ARCH=msp430 r2 -a r2m2 -qc 'woR; pd 5' -
0x00000000 07fa and.w R10, R7
0x00000002 47ad dadd.b R13, R7
0x00000004 f05e0778 add.b @R14+, 0x7807(PC)
0x00000008 f46d81ed addc.b @R13+, 0xED81(R4)
0x0000000c 3fdc bis.w @R12+, R15
+ Assemble MIPS32 using rasm2 and display the call graph using r2
r2m2$ R2M2_ARCH=mips32b rasm2 -a r2m2 'j 0x4; nop' -B > j_nop.bin
r2m2$ R2M2_ARCH=mips32b r2 -a r2m2 -qc 'pd 2' j_nop.bin
,=< 0x00000000 0c000001 JAL 0x4
`-> 0x00000004 00000000 NOP
# bin carving with r2
+ Open raw dump
r2 -n dump.bin
+ Searching for magic
[0x00000000]> / \x7fELF
Searching 4 bytes from 0x00000000 to 0x0000002d: 7f 45 4c 46
0x00001340 hit0_0
0x00001744 hit0_1
...
+ Dump 1M with at several hits
[0x00000000]> b 1M
[0x00000000]> wt @@ hit0*
+ Automate it
$ for a in dump.* ; do
sz=`rabin2 -Z $a` # get RBin.filesize
r2 -wnqc"r $sz" $a # resize file
done
http://radare.today/posts/carving-bins/
# r4ge - symbolic execution
+ https://github.com/gast04/r4ge
Usage: https://asciinema.org/a/155856
# r2wiki -Macro for using wiki in commandline
+ https://github.com/securisec/r2wiki
$wiki "query string"
Cheatsheets are an excellent complement to other information sources like Linux man-pages, Linux help, or How-To’s and tutorials, as they provide compact and easily accessible information. While man-pages and detailed tutorials often contain comprehensive explanations and extensive guides, cheatsheets summarize the most important options forthe command r2 in a clear format. This allows users to quickly access the needed information for r2 without having to sift through lengthy texts. Especially in stressful situations or for recurring tasks, cheatsheets for r2 are a valuable resource to work efficiently and purposefully.
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╚██╔═██╔╝██████╔╝╚██████╔╝██╔╝ ██╗███████╗██████╔╝
╚═╝ ╚═╝ ╚═════╝ ╚═════╝ ╚═╝ ╚═╝╚══════╝╚═════╝
█║▌│║█║▌ WITH COMMANDLINE-KUNGFU POWER █║▌│║█║▌
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